Improving competition readiness, and subsequent performance, is a main objective of coaches and athletes. While this is a long, never-ending process that starts well before any given competition, the time immediately leading into competition can make or break one’s performance.
On an individual level, it is not uncommon for athletes to have differing preferences on what prepares them best for competition in the preceding 1-48 hours. In Track and Field for instance, some athletes prefer to rest the day before competition and others prefer to complete a ‘pre-meet’ workout the day prior.
Beyond personal preference, athletic performance is dependent on physiological, perceptual and psychological factors [20]. With this, we cannot take a one-size-fits-all approach and we must devote time and energy to better understand individual responses to various pre-competition strategies.
In the sport performance world we often look at Post-Activation Potentiation (PAP) as a phenomenon which leads to large performance enhancements. PAP reflects an enhanced muscle contractile response following a conditioning activity. For more information on PAP, and its close relative Post-Activation Performance Enhancement (PAPE), I encourage readers to explore the paper by Blazevich and Babault (2019) [3].
While the transient effects of PAP/PAPE can be very beneficial to performance, the ecological validity around the majority of competitions is minimal. Most athletes do not have the opportunity to perform a conditioning activity in the seconds or minutes prior to their competitive task. In accordance with this, a ‘delayed potentiation’ effect has been demonstrated following resistance training at various times between 1 and 48 hours in performance measures [9]. Since utilizing the word potentiation in this context can at times be confusing and inaccurate, ‘priming’ is a term which, in athletic contexts, refers to a bout of exercise prescribed hours before competition to temporarily enhance or facilitate performance [20]. This acute exercise bout is often performed in the 1-6 hours preceding a competitive performance and the results of such intervention are highly variable and quite poorly understood.
What is at the root of this enhanced performance?
The answer to this question is multi-faceted, and poorly understood. From a neuromuscular perspective, high-frequency motor neuron activation [17], mechanical stiffness [1], and contractile properties [9] are a few of the proposed potential mechanisms but there is some debate and uncertainty as to the role of the neuromuscular system with priming that occurs more than 6 hours before competition.
Effects of exercise priming on the hormonal system, relatively speaking, are a bit more straightforward. For instance, testosterone and cortisol each have implications on performance and peak in the morning before declining throughout the day [9]. Figure 1 (below) comes from Cook et al (2014) and shows the morning to afternoon difference in testosterone for three groups – a control group, a morning sprint session group, and a morning resistance session group.
As you can see, each of the morning workout groups saw higher testosterone levels later in the day when compared to the control group.
A non-exhaustive list of additional research on positive hormonal impact within the 1-6 hour window post exercise:
Stokes et al [19] used repeat maximal cycle sprints and saw an increase in growth hormone at 1 hour and 4 hours of recovery.
Johnston et al [8] used 6 x 50m maximal sprint efforts and saw a large decrease in cortisol levels at 4 hours recovery.
Sparkes et al [18] used compound movements at 85% 1RM and saw an increase in the T/C ratio.
Kraemer et al [10] used resistance training at approximately 87% 1RM and saw increased testosterone levels at 1.5 hours of recovery.
Bird & Tarpenning [2] used resistance training at 75% 1RM and saw a large decrease in cortisol at 1 hour of recovery.
Hakkinen et al [6] used 20 x 1 back squats at 100% 1RM and saw an increase in growth hormone at 1 hour of recovery.
Last but not least, psychological state is an important consideration when looking at enhanced performance following conditioning activities.
Marrier et al (2018) found a positive impact on psychophysiological state following a morning priming session performed 2 hours prior to a rugby match. Additionally, highly anxious weightlifters have been shown to respond well to morning activity prior to an afternoon simulated competition when compared to their less anxious counterparts [5].
While this is only two examples, there is a clear need to consider the psychological and perceptual factors of athletes when programming priming exercise. Whether it be to determine who is prescribed morning exercise preceding competition, or what mode of exercise is prescribed, athlete mindset is an important factor.
Modes of Exercise Priming & Impact on Various Activity Types
Various modes of exercise (resistance training, cycling, running, etc.) have been assessed for their effectiveness as priming strategies with the most researched and seemingly most impactful parameters being high-intensity and low-volume.
The review paper from Mason et al (2020) found that,
“Resistance training using heavy loads at low volumes increased strength and power measures following a 4–6 h recovery, with limited improvements observed following shorter (1–3 h)and longer (6–12 h) recovery periods. Running-based sprint priming led to improvements in subsequent sprint and repeat sprint performance following a 5–6 h recovery, whereas cycling improved counter-movement jump height in a single study only. No significant differences were reported in any performance measures following endurance-based running or cycling strategies.”
It has also been suggested that a movement-specific priming effect may be present (ie. morning sprints prime afternoon sprints and morning jumps prime afternoon jumps) [4, 5, 12, 16].
With all that being said, there is still a lot of variance in recommendations for mode of exercise priming and more specifically, the accompanying parameters (volume, intensity, duration, etc.).
Regarding intensity, recommendations range from 30-95% of 1 rep-maximum with repetitions ranging from as low as 1 when prescribing the higher intensities and as high as 20 repetitions for low-load ballistic exercises [4].
With this variance, the performance activity one is trying to enhance is a critical consideration (along with athlete preference and perception) when designing priming protocols.
Below are a few examples to examine…
Russell et al. [16] used repeated maximal sprints and improved the first two sprints of a 6-sprint test and saw an increase in CMJ height in high-level rugby players.
Ronsen et al [15] used both single and repeated endurance efforts and improved oxygen uptake and respiratory exchange ratio (RER) in high-level endurance athletes.
Palmer & Sleivert [14] used resistance training at approximately 80% 1RM and saw an increase in submaximal VO2 in well-trained runners.
Cook et al [4] used resistance training at an intensity ranging from 80-100% 1RM and saw increases in 3RM bench press, 3RM back squat, and CMJ peak power, as well as a decrease in 40-meter sprint time in semi-professional rugby players.
In closing, we may never fully conclude if the driving force behind the performance improvements are physiological, perceptual, or psychological. Further, it will be tough to determine the most impactful mode of exercise and loading parameters for various performance improvements.
Performance is a multifactorial phenomenon that we will never fully understand but the one thing we know is that the smallest performance enhancements can have great effect on the outcomes in sport.
When preparing athletes during the lead-in to competition we must respect the individual, plan meticulously and execute flawlessly. While priming exercise has the potential to be immensely impactful, it cannot be implemented haphazardly. It will be a trial and error process that needs to be monitored closely and adjusted often.
References
1. Baker D, and Nance S. (1999) The relation between running speed and measures of strength and power in professional rugby league players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research.13(3):230–5.
2. Bird SP and Tarpenning KM (2004) Influence of circadian time structure on acute hormonal responses to a single bout of heavy resistance exercise in weight-trained men. Chronobiology International. 21(1):131–46.
3. Blazevich AJ and Babault N (2019) Post-activation Potentiation Versus Post-activation Performance Enhancement in Humans: Historical Perspective, Underlying Mechanisms, and Current Issues. Frontiers in Physiology. 10:1359.
4. Cook CJ, Kilduff LP, Crewther BT, Beaven M, West DJ (2014) Morning based strength training improves afternoon physical performance in rugby union players. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. (3):317-21.
5. Fry A, Stone M, Thrush J, Fleck S (1995) Precompetition training sessions enhance competitive performance of high anxiety junior weightlifters. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 9(1):37-42.
6. Hakkinen K, and Pakarinen A. (1993) Acute hormonal responses to two different fatiguing heavy-resistance protocols in male athletes. Journal of Applied Physiology. 72(2):5.
7. Harrison PW, James LP, McGuigan MR, Jenkins DG, Kelly VG (2019) Resistance Priming to Enhance Neuromuscular Performance in Sport: Evidence, Potential Mechanisms and Directions for Future Research. Sports Medicine. 49(10):1499-1514.
8 Johnston M, Johnston J, Cook CJ, Costley L, Kilgallon M, Kilduff LP (2017) The effect of session order on the physiological, neuromuscular, and endocrine responses to maximal speed and weight training sessions over a 24-h period. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 20(5):502–6.
9. Kilduff LP, Finn CV, Baker JS, Cook CJ, West DJ (2013) Preconditioning strategies to enhance physical performance on the day of competition. International Journal of Sport Physiology. 8(6):677–81.
10. Kraemer WJ, Marchitelli L, Gordon SE, Harman E, Dziados JE, Mello R, Frykman P, McCurry D, Fleck SJ (1990) Hormonal and growth factor responses to heavy resistance exercise protocols. Journal of Applied Physiology (1985). 69(4):1442–500.
11. Marrier B, Durguerian A, Robineau J, Chennaoui M, Sauvet F, Servonnet A, Piscione J, Mathieu B, Peeters A, Lacome M, Morin JB, Le Meur Y (2019) Preconditioning Strategy in Rugby-7s Players: Beneficial or Detrimental? International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. 1;14(7):918-926.
12. Mason BR, Argus CK, Norcott B, Ball NB (2017) Resistance Training Priming Activity Improves Upper-Body Power Output in Rugby Players: Implications for Game Day Performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 31(4):913-920.
13. Mason B, McKune A, Pumpa K, Ball N (2020) The Use of Acute Exercise Interventions as Game Day Priming Strategies to Improve Physical Performance and Athlete Readiness in Team-Sport Athletes: A Systematic Review. Sports Medicine. 50(11):1943-1962.
14. Palmer CD, and Sleivert GG (2001) Running economy is impaired following a single bout of resistance exercise. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 4(4):447–59.
15. Ronsen O, Haugen O, Hallen J, Bahr R (2004) Residual effects of prior exercise and recovery on subsequent exercise-induced metabolic responses. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 92(4–5):498–507.
16. Russell M, King A, Bracken RM, Cook CJ, Giroud T, Kilduf LP (2016) A comparison of different modes of morning priming exercise on afternoon performance. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. 11(6):763–7.
17. Saez Saez de Villarreal E, Gonzalez-Badillo JJ, Izquierdo M (2007) Optimal warm-up stimuli of muscle activation to enhance short and long-term acute jumping performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology.100(4):393–401.
18. Sparkes W, Turner AN, Weston M, Russell M, Johnston MJ, Kilduff LP (2020) The effect of training order on neuromuscular, endocrine and mood response to small-sided games and resistance training sessions over a 24-h period. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 23(9): 866-871.
19. Stokes K, Nevill M, Frystyk J, Lakomy H, Hall G. (2005) Human growth hormone responses to repeated bouts of sprint exercise with different recovery periods between bouts. Journal of Applied Physiology. 99(4):1254–61.
20. Valcarce-Merayo, E, and Latella, Christopher (2022) Precompetition Strategies to Improve Performance in Endurance or Repeated Intermittent Activity: Evidence and Practical Suggestions. Strength and Conditioning Journal. Publish Ahead of Print. DOI: 10.1519/SSC.0000000000000753